Urbanisation is an increase in the percentage of people living in towns and cities. Urban population growth means more urban residents; it can happen without the urban percentage rising.
High-income countries (HICs) generally already have a high urban percentage. Many low-income countries (LICs) and newly emerging economies (NEEs) have a lower urban percentage but faster urban growth. There are differences within each group.
A megacity has more than ten million inhabitants. Compare figures for the same boundary: a city council area and its wider urban area can have very different populations.
Rural–urban migration moves people from the countryside into cities. Push factors encourage people to leave, such as unreliable harvests, few jobs or poor access to services.
Pull factors attract migrants, such as perceived job opportunities, universities, hospitals or relatives already living in the city. Expectations are not always met.
Natural increase occurs when births exceed deaths. A young urban population can keep growing even if migration slows.How urban populations grow. These mechanisms increase resident numbers. Urbanisation specifically concerns the urban percentage of the total population.
Urban growth can support factories, shops and services because firms gain access to workers, customers and suppliers. Tax revenue can help fund infrastructure.
Rapid growth creates pressure when homes, water pipes, schools and transport cannot expand as quickly as demand. The problem is uneven provision, not simply the presence of many people.
Cities in an LIC or NEE
Cities connect their surrounding region to national and international markets through roads, ports, airports and digital networks. Their importance includes jobs, culture and political influence.
Industrial employment can provide wages, training and demand for local suppliers. These benefits depend on working conditions and whether residents can access the jobs.
The formal economy includes registered businesses and regulated employment. Informal work, such as street vending, provides income but often lacks job security or legal protection.
Hospitals, schools, electricity and piped water can improve quality of life. Their presence in a city does not mean every neighbourhood can afford or access them.
An informal settlement may develop where low incomes and housing shortages leave people unable to obtain planned housing. Some residents own homes but lack secure rights to the land.
Crowded housing, unreliable toilets and unsafe water can spread disease. Poor drainage can mix floodwater with sewage; waste blocking channels can make flooding worse.
Traffic congestion wastes time and fuel. Vehicle exhausts and industrial emissions can harm health; treating sewage and controlling discharges can reduce water pollution.
Unemployment and insecure work can worsen poverty. Crime has several causes; do not treat all informal-settlement residents as criminals.
Upgrading can add drains, surfaced paths, water points, toilets, lighting and schools while residents remain nearby. Consultation helps identify what residents actually need.
Relocation may provide safer housing but can separate people from jobs and support networks. Judge a planning scheme by affordability, access and long-term maintenance as well as new buildings.
Urban change in the UK
Much of the UK's population lives in urban areas. Large concentrations include London and south-east England, the Midlands, north-west England, Yorkshire, central Scotland and south Wales.
UK settlement patterns reflect industrial history, ports, coalfields, transport routes and modern service jobs. Low population density in uplands partly reflects relief and fewer large employment centres.
National migration can bring students and workers from other parts of the UK. International migration adds skills, businesses, languages and cultural connections.
Migration can increase demand for housing and services. Its effects depend on the age, skills and circumstances of migrants and the capacity of the receiving area.
Urban change can create opportunities in finance, technology, education, entertainment and tourism. Cultural diversity supports restaurants, festivals and creative industries.
Integrated transport links different modes, such as rail, bus, walking and cycling. Convenient transfers and coordinated information help people travel without a car.
Urban greening adds trees, parks, green roofs and planted streets. It can provide shade, wildlife habitats and space for exercise while helping slow surface runoff.
Urban deprivation means people lack resources or opportunities needed for a reasonable quality of life. Housing, income, education, employment and health inequalities can exist within the same city.
Derelict land and empty factories can follow industrial decline. Regeneration improves an area's economic, social and physical conditions rather than simply replacing old buildings.
Brownfield land has been developed before. Reusing it can protect countryside and use existing infrastructure, but cleaning contamination and preparing the site can be expensive.
Greenfield land has not previously been developed. Construction may be easier but can remove farmland and habitats and increase pressure on roads and drainage.
Urban sprawl spreads development onto the rural–urban fringe, where the city meets the countryside. Commuter settlements grow when people live outside the city but travel into it for work.
Commuting can support rural shops and raise housing demand, but traffic, high prices and loss of local services can disadvantage existing residents.
Sustainable urban living
A sustainable city aims to meet people's needs while limiting environmental damage and avoiding excessive resource use in the future. Social fairness matters alongside emissions.
Water meters, leak repairs, efficient taps and rainwater collection can reduce demand. Collected rainwater needs suitable treatment before any drinking use.
Insulation, efficient appliances and passive building design, such as positioning windows to use sunlight for warmth, reduce energy demand. Low-carbon energy supply then reduces emissions from the remaining demand.
Reducing and reusing materials comes before recycling. Separate collection, clear information and markets for recovered materials help recycling work.
Green space supports recreation and biodiversity. Parks need safe access and maintenance; replacing homes with expensive green developments can still exclude poorer residents.
Reliable public transport, cycle routes and safe pavements offer alternatives to driving. Bus priority and park-and-ride can reduce cars entering busy centres.
Congestion charges and parking controls discourage driving but can impose costs on some workers. Assess exemptions, public transport alternatives and effects on different groups.
Using an urban case study
For each named city, connect its location and importance to causes of growth, opportunities, challenges and a specific planning response. Explain the chain from change to impact rather than listing facts.
For regeneration, state why the area needed change, what was built or improved and who gained. Distinguish completed work from plans and consider displacement or affordability.
Named NEE city: Mumbai, India
Mumbai is on India's west coast beside the Arabian Sea, in Maharashtra. It is the state capital and a major port and financial centre; India's national capital is New Delhi. Trade, finance and the film industry give Mumbai national and international importance.
Mumbai has grown through rural–urban migration and natural increase. Jobs, education and family links attract migrants; limited rural employment encourages some people to leave. Rapid growth increases demand for land, housing and services.
Finance, manufacturing, port services and the film industry create formal employment and supplier opportunities. Informal businesses, including workshops and recycling in Dharavi, support livelihoods, but work can be insecure and poorly protected.
Hospitals, universities, transport and electricity offer opportunities, but income and location affect access. Expensive formal housing and limited affordable supply contribute to overcrowding and the growth of informal settlements.
Monsoon rainfall can overwhelm drainage and flood low-lying areas. Building on floodplains, blocked drains and loss of permeable land can worsen risk; poor sanitation and polluted water increase health hazards in crowded neighbourhoods.
Congested roads and crowded public transport make commuting difficult and contribute to air pollution. Improving reliable, affordable rail and bus access can connect residents to jobs without requiring every household to own a car.
Mumbai's Slum Sanitation Programme is a historical planning example: community toilet blocks were built with municipal (city-government), NGO (non-governmental organisation) and community involvement, with community organisations helping to operate and maintain them. This targets sanitation access rather than rebuilding every informal home.
Shared facilities can improve hygiene and dignity where household toilets are absent, but cleaning, water supply, repairs and affordable access determine whether benefits last. Consultation helps identify residents' needs and supports accountability.
Evaluate upgrading against redevelopment: improvements can retain nearby jobs and support networks, while relocation may disrupt them. Dharavi redevelopment proposals and projected benefits must be distinguished from completed outcomes; sanitation improvements alone do not solve insecure housing and incomes.
Named UK city: London and Stratford regeneration
London lies on the Thames in south-east England. National government, finance, universities, tourism and international transport give it importance beyond its own population.
Migration within the UK and from abroad has shaped London's workforce, languages and culture. It supports businesses and services while increasing housing demand alongside other causes of growth.
London offers diverse employment and recreation and linked rail, Underground and bus networks. Parks and urban trees provide green space, though access and environmental quality vary.
High housing costs and unequal incomes contribute to deprivation despite the city's wealth. Some households face overcrowding or long journeys to affordable homes.
Growth spreads pressure onto the rural–urban fringe and commuter towns. Building on brownfield land can limit countryside loss, but contaminated sites need preparation.
Stratford and the lower Lea Valley in east London include the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park regeneration area. Former industrial and railway land contained pollution and fragmented infrastructure before redevelopment for the 2012 Games and their legacy.
Regeneration cleaned and reused land, created parkland and sporting facilities and supported new homes and business, educational and cultural uses. The former athletes' village became housing after the Games.
Rail connections at Stratford and paths through the park improve access. New green space supports recreation and habitats as well as redevelopment.
New investment and housing are benefits, but affordability remains a significant challenge. Higher land values and rents can exclude lower-income residents; planned housing totals should not be described as already completed.
Sustainable living example: BedZED, London
BedZED means Beddington Zero Energy Development. Completed in 2002 in the London Borough of Sutton, it is a mixed-use development on previously developed land, combining homes with workspace and community facilities. Its name expresses a design ambition, not proof that every activity has zero emissions.
High insulation, airtight construction and south-facing glazing (windows) reduce heating demand by retaining heat and using sunlight to warm rooms, called passive solar gain. Ventilation provides fresh air; solar photovoltaic panels supply some electricity. Reducing demand matters alongside generating cleaner energy.
Water-efficient fittings reduce use, while waste separation and recycling support resource conservation. Reclaimed and locally sourced building materials reduce some construction impacts; their benefits depend on sourcing and the full building life cycle.
Walking, cycling, public transport access and a car club encourage lower-car travel. Shared green spaces and community facilities support social contact and local biodiversity, connecting environmental design with quality of life.
The original woodchip combined heat and power plant did not provide the intended reliable long-term supply and was replaced. Distinguish the initial design from later operation: BedZED illustrates both successful demand reduction and the need to maintain and adapt technology.
Evaluate sustainability using actual energy and water use, transport choices, affordability and residents' experience. Upfront costs and limited scale make it harder to repeat the approach elsewhere; one development does not make all of London sustainable.
Test yourself
53 questions · Random sets of 10. These quick checks support revision; practise longer explanations and justified judgements too.
Mind map
Use the branches to recall the ideas and explain their connections. Check the revision notes for the full detail.
G13 · Part A — Urban growth and Mumbai
View G13 · Part A — Urban growth and Mumbai mind mapOpen the full-size map to zoom. Use the printable view for A4 landscape or enlarge to A3.
G13 · Part B — UK change, London and sustainability
View G13 · Part B — UK change, London and sustainability mind mapOpen the full-size map to zoom. Use the printable view for A4 landscape or enlarge to A3.
Mr Kidman's Classroom
